Strangers in their Own Land: A Cultural History of Japanese American Internment Camps in Arkansas 1942-1945.

Dori Felie Moss, 2007. Materials for the work will be in italics.

As one of the most segregated and impoverished states during the 1940s, Arkansas? two camps were distinctly different from the nine other internment camps used for relocation.

Rohwer and Jerome were the two camps in Arkansas. The other interment camps were in desert areas, basically, while Rohwer and Jerome were in what amount to swampland of a type. Unlike the vast majority of works on the camps and what went on in them, this report deals more with how the camps related to the local populace and vice versa.

The author starts out talking about Pearl Harbor, the various generations of persons of Japanese ancestry in the United States, and how over 100,000 such people were moved from their homes and businesses on the West Coast to the internment camps that were further inland.

The swamp-like conditions of Arkansas, infested with snakes and mosquitoes, offered an entirely different environment for internees, who found their new homes “bleak, dirty, military in nature, cold and unwelcoming.”15 While barren and inhospitable, poor economic and agricultural conditions in Arkansas added to the dreary atmosphere of the centers.

Such places were picked, of course, to help control any chance of escape of the internees. They could either end up in a swamp or in a desert, neither of which was likely to be a positive asset in a continuation of their good health.

Then he starts talking about the state of Arkansas and how there were a lot of racial tensions there, much of that due to the very poor economic conditions of the state.

The combination of ethnic stereotypes, economic concerns and fear of the unknown rattled Arkansas. While some individuals did not protest the arrival of internees, many others voiced their disapproval and concern regarding the impact of internment on their state.

This set the these camps apart from the others as, at least as far as I have read so far, the other camps were not met with similar concerns about the economic impact of the internees on the state. In fact, in many cases internees from the camps eventually were allowed to leave for a bit to help farmers harvest their crops which, of course, proved an economic boon.

In Arkansas, though, with few jobs available, having thousands of people show up on your doorstep naturally caused some in Arkansas to worry that some of the few jobs available might go to these new arrivals.

The author then talks about another massive relocation program in American history, the program being the movement of Native Americans from their land out West to certain reservations that had been set aside for them. Like the persons of Japanese ancestry these Native Americans were not arrested and given a chance to prove their innocence in a trial. They actually weren't even charged with anything, just like the Japanese Americans. They were just a group of people in the wrong place at the wrong time, and the government wanted them moved.

The subject of internment in the South creates an intersection of themes including: segregation, racism, press coverage and wartime reporting.

Segregation was a major issue in Arkansas as was racism. How the mass media reported what was going on was of great importance as such reporting could influence how those living in Arkansas would view the new arrivals in relation to themselves, to the economy, and to the Blacks.

Then he talks about whether or not the camp newspapers were censored by the government. After that he talks about how the structure of the Japanese families in the camps tended to break down due to the unusual conditions found in the camps; e.g. the kids no longer eating with the adults but eating with their own peer group. There was also the hurt that the internees felt being treated by their own government as criminals, basically, even though two-thirds of those interned were actually American citizens.

While not outwardly conveying resentment towards the internment process, the hurt and anguish of being branded as disloyal citizens proved the most biting aspect of relocation.

That's also not something that is quickly forgotten.

Then he addresses the first of various problems encountered in Arkansas.

The WRA effort to recruit qualified Arkansas teachers to instruct students at Jerome and Rohwer fueled animosity of local residents towards internees. Offering higher salaries at relocation centers, fear spread among the state that “relocation centers would drain the state of its best qualified teachers.” From this perspective, local residents were more concerned with Japanese Americans stealing their teachers than with their loyalty to the US.

My guess is there was probably some racism involved here since the teachers would no longer be teaching white students but would be teaching Orientals.

Another thing the author discusses is the use of photographs and their effect on how people think.

On December 22, 1941, Life issued a section entitled “How to tell your friends apart from the Japs”, including visuals with blatant cultural stereotypes about both Chinese and Japanese individuals.

If you want to encourage racism this is one very good way to do it. During the war, for example, the Japanese soldiers were drawn as snakes, monkeys and various other animals. They were drawn in a stereotype of buck teeth and large, thick glasses. They were considered to be sneaky.

The newspapers in Arkansas took both sides of the debate on how to treat the internees, some articles calling for tolerance, some calling the camps as ...dumping grounds for undesireables, and others calling for a 'Christian' attitude towards the internees.

The Governor of Arkansas at the time was Homer Atkins who was a WWI vet and had entered politics as a member of the Ku Klux Klan. He introduced a bill in the Arkansas senate to ban all Japanese and all Japanese Americans from owing land within the state. He also prohibited any of the internees from entering state colleges (since it would provide a precedent for Blacks to start applying, in his view), and he didn't want them working in the state, either.

The ability of many internees to be very successful farmers had made many white farmers angry at them on the West Coast and the Arkansas farmers reacted in pretty much the same way.

In many cases, locals having a negative predisposition towards different races, such as African Americans, exercised similar racist attitudes towards Japanese Americans. Political documents evidenced this racist behavior, creating a connection between African Americans and Japanese Americans by grouping them in a similar “troublemaker” category.

Thus, both Blacks and Japanese Americans were perceived as the 'other,' which, in people's minds, justified treating them in a negative way. There was a little interaction between the camps and the town but that often resulted in 'hostile encounters' including shooting.

The author notes he consulted 78 articles from The Denson Tribute and 75 from The Rohwer Outpost along with 95 from The Arkansas Democrat, 78 from The Arkansas Gazette and 59 from The McGehee Times in trying to determine what was going on and the attitudes during that time period.

He writes that the camp newspapers gave an impression of what kind of life the internees were living within the camps. Within both papers, religious services and events appeared as a central focus for camp life.

As far as the camp schools went:

The Arkansas state superintendent recognized the hard work and dedication of parents, students, and members of the community by giving their education system an “A” rating.

Then he mentions again how the governor banned any of the internees from working in the state and he notes that other states were placing as in the camp papers for workers that were needed on farms. This also establishes that the internment process was not the same as a prison since some internees were allowed to leave to help farmers and some students were allowed to leave to go to colleges in other states.

He also notes that the internees were generous in contributing to charities despite the fact that they weren't rich. Rohwer, for example, contributed $2,888 to the Red Cross.

Then matters changed somewhat and internees were allowed to enlist in the military, some doing so because they were trying to prove their loyalty to America. Another way, in the camp, to prove loyalty was to take part in patriotic events.

He notes there was little censorship on either the Tribute or the Outpost.

Then he goes on to the coverage in Arkansas newspapers about the camps.

...while some were supportive of the arrival of Japanese Americans into Arkansas, a majority of press coverage indicated a negative reaction to relocation. The major themes identified through these articles elucidate local Arkansas reaction to internment as being generally negative, due in large part to the state?s disjointed economic, political and social atmosphere.

For one thing, in relation to the issue of taking Arkansas teachers and putting them into teaching positions in the camps, all three Arkansas papers he consulted felt that such an action fostered anti-Japanese American sentiments.

The papers noted a labor shortage in the areas around the camps but the internees were still not allowed to work in the state.

The view taken by many ministers was quite different:

...many ministers in the state did not regard evacuees as the enemy, except in a theological sense.”

T.L Harris, President of the Executive Board of Arkansas Southern Baptists, presented his blatant plans for conversion of Japanese Americans: “Here is our own state we have had literally thrust upon us the greatest opportunity for winning to Christ those of pagan faith we have ever witnessed.”

There were various people that visited the camps, including politicians. The locals wanted to make sure the camps were not getting an unfair share of supplies, and they wanted to make sure the military still had firm control. There were, though, a few articles in the local papers that denied that the camps were getting an unfair share of supplies.

The inclusion of positive coverage of Japanese Americans in the press exemplified constructive aspects of internment life, Japanese American accomplishments, and the work of local and national officials to condemn relocation. The volume of articles supporting Japanese Americans and denouncing internment signified the fight against the injustice of relocation, and the many efforts to educate the country about the realities of internment. Covering both national and local viewpoints, the inclusion of positive coverage of Japanese Americans in Arkansas newspapers confirmed the availability of diverse opinions on interment in the local press.

Still, though, the majority of articles were negative.

Negative coverage of Japanese Americans included repeated articles on unrest and chaos at the centers, official probes into camp disturbances, confrontations between internees and locals, and stories illuminating racist sentiments.

The main dislike of the Japanese Americans was for their access to food and education.

This work also includes a list of the articles run in the local papers which is very helpful for the researcher.

Main Index
Japan main page
Japanese-American Internment Camps index page
Japan and World War II index page

Strangers in their Own Land: A Cultural History of Japanese American Internment Camps in Arkansas 1942-1945.

Dori Felie Moss, 2007. Materials for the work will be in italics.

As one of the most segregated and impoverished states during the 1940s, Arkansas? two camps were distinctly different from the nine other internment camps used for relocation.

The author starts out talking about Pearl Harbor, the various generations of persons of Japanese ancestry in the United States, and how over 100,000 such people were moved from their homes and businesses on the West Coast to the internment camps that were further inland.

Such places were picked, of course, to help control any chance of escape of the internees. They could either end up in a swamp or in a desert, neither of which was likely to be a positive asset in a continuation of their good health.

Then he starts talking about the state of Arkansas and how there were a lot of racial tensions there, much of that due to the very poor economic conditions of the state.

The combination of ethnic stereotypes, economic concerns and fear of the unknown rattled Arkansas. While some individuals did not protest the arrival of internees, many others voiced their disapproval and concern regarding the impact of internment on their state.

In Arkansas, though, with few jobs available, having thousands of people show up on your doorstep naturally caused some in Arkansas to worry that some of the few jobs available might go to these new arrivals.

The subject of internment in the South creates an intersection of themes including: segregation, racism, press coverage and wartime reporting.

Segregation was a major issue in Arkansas as was racism. How the mass media reported what was going on was of great importance as such reporting could influence how those living in Arkansas would view the new arrivals in relation to themselves, to the economy, and to the Blacks.

While not outwardly conveying resentment towards the internment process, the hurt and anguish of being branded as disloyal citizens proved the most biting aspect of relocation.

That's also not something that is quickly forgotten.

Then he addresses the first of various problems encountered in Arkansas.

My guess is there was probably some racism involved here since the teachers would no longer be teaching white students but would be teaching Orientals.

Another thing the author discusses is the use of photographs and their effect on how people think.

If you want to encourage racism this is one very good way to do it. During the war, for example, the Japanese soldiers were drawn as snakes, monkeys and various other animals. They were drawn in a stereotype of buck teeth and large, thick glasses. They were considered to be sneaky.

The newspapers in Arkansas took both sides of the debate on how to treat the internees, some articles calling for tolerance, some calling the camps as ...dumping grounds for undesireables, and others calling for a 'Christian' attitude towards the internees.

The ability of many internees to be very successful farmers had made many white farmers angry at them on the West Coast and the Arkansas farmers reacted in pretty much the same way.

Thus, both Blacks and Japanese Americans were perceived as the 'other,' which, in people's minds, justified treating them in a negative way. There was a little interaction between the camps and the town but that often resulted in 'hostile encounters' including shooting.

The author notes he consulted 78 articles from The Denson Tribute and 75 from The Rohwer Outpost along with 95 from The Arkansas Democrat, 78 from The Arkansas Gazette and 59 from The McGehee Times in trying to determine what was going on and the attitudes during that time period.

He writes that the camp newspapers gave an impression of what kind of life the internees were living within the camps. Within both papers, religious services and events appeared as a central focus for camp life.

As far as the camp schools went:

The Arkansas state superintendent recognized the hard work and dedication of parents, students, and members of the community by giving their education system an “A” rating.

He also notes that the internees were generous in contributing to charities despite the fact that they weren't rich. Rohwer, for example, contributed $2,888 to the Red Cross.

Then matters changed somewhat and internees were allowed to enlist in the military, some doing so because they were trying to prove their loyalty to America. Another way, in the camp, to prove loyalty was to take part in patriotic events.

He notes there was little censorship on either the Tribute or the Outpost.

Then he goes on to the coverage in Arkansas newspapers about the camps.

For one thing, in relation to the issue of taking Arkansas teachers and putting them into teaching positions in the camps, all three Arkansas papers he consulted felt that such an action fostered anti-Japanese American sentiments.

The papers noted a labor shortage in the areas around the camps but the internees were still not allowed to work in the state.

The view taken by many ministers was quite different:

...many ministers in the state did not regard evacuees as the enemy, except in a theological sense.”

T.L Harris, President of the Executive Board of Arkansas Southern Baptists, presented his blatant plans for conversion of Japanese Americans: “Here is our own state we have had literally thrust upon us the greatest opportunity for winning to Christ those of pagan faith we have ever witnessed.”

Still, though, the majority of articles were negative.

Negative coverage of Japanese Americans included repeated articles on unrest and chaos at the centers, official probes into camp disturbances, confrontations between internees and locals, and stories illuminating racist sentiments.

The main dislike of the Japanese Americans was for their access to food and education.

This work also includes a list of the articles run in the local papers which is very helpful for the researcher.

Main Index
Japan main page
Japanese-American Internment Camps index page
Japan and World War II index page

Strangers in their Own Land: A Cultural History of Japanese American Internment Camps in Arkansas 1942-1945.

Dori Felie Moss, 2007. Materials for the work will be in italics.

As one of the most segregated and impoverished states during the 1940s, Arkansas? two camps were distinctly different from the nine other internment camps used for relocation.

The author starts out talking about Pearl Harbor, the various generations of persons of Japanese ancestry in the United States, and how over 100,000 such people were moved from their homes and businesses on the West Coast to the internment camps that were further inland.

Such places were picked, of course, to help control any chance of escape of the internees. They could either end up in a swamp or in a desert, neither of which was likely to be a positive asset in a continuation of their good health.

Then he starts talking about the state of Arkansas and how there were a lot of racial tensions there, much of that due to the very poor economic conditions of the state.

The combination of ethnic stereotypes, economic concerns and fear of the unknown rattled Arkansas. While some individuals did not protest the arrival of internees, many others voiced their disapproval and concern regarding the impact of internment on their state.

In Arkansas, though, with few jobs available, having thousands of people show up on your doorstep naturally caused some in Arkansas to worry that some of the few jobs available might go to these new arrivals.

The subject of internment in the South creates an intersection of themes including: segregation, racism, press coverage and wartime reporting.

Segregation was a major issue in Arkansas as was racism. How the mass media reported what was going on was of great importance as such reporting could influence how those living in Arkansas would view the new arrivals in relation to themselves, to the economy, and to the Blacks.

While not outwardly conveying resentment towards the internment process, the hurt and anguish of being branded as disloyal citizens proved the most biting aspect of relocation.

That's also not something that is quickly forgotten.

Then he addresses the first of various problems encountered in Arkansas.

My guess is there was probably some racism involved here since the teachers would no longer be teaching white students but would be teaching Orientals.

Another thing the author discusses is the use of photographs and their effect on how people think.

If you want to encourage racism this is one very good way to do it. During the war, for example, the Japanese soldiers were drawn as snakes, monkeys and various other animals. They were drawn in a stereotype of buck teeth and large, thick glasses. They were considered to be sneaky.

The newspapers in Arkansas took both sides of the debate on how to treat the internees, some articles calling for tolerance, some calling the camps as ...dumping grounds for undesireables, and others calling for a 'Christian' attitude towards the internees.

The ability of many internees to be very successful farmers had made many white farmers angry at them on the West Coast and the Arkansas farmers reacted in pretty much the same way.

Thus, both Blacks and Japanese Americans were perceived as the 'other,' which, in people's minds, justified treating them in a negative way. There was a little interaction between the camps and the town but that often resulted in 'hostile encounters' including shooting.

The author notes he consulted 78 articles from The Denson Tribute and 75 from The Rohwer Outpost along with 95 from The Arkansas Democrat, 78 from The Arkansas Gazette and 59 from The McGehee Times in trying to determine what was going on and the attitudes during that time period.

He writes that the camp newspapers gave an impression of what kind of life the internees were living within the camps. Within both papers, religious services and events appeared as a central focus for camp life.

As far as the camp schools went:

The Arkansas state superintendent recognized the hard work and dedication of parents, students, and members of the community by giving their education system an “A” rating.

He also notes that the internees were generous in contributing to charities despite the fact that they weren't rich. Rohwer, for example, contributed $2,888 to the Red Cross.

Then matters changed somewhat and internees were allowed to enlist in the military, some doing so because they were trying to prove their loyalty to America. Another way, in the camp, to prove loyalty was to take part in patriotic events.

He notes there was little censorship on either the Tribute or the Outpost.

Then he goes on to the coverage in Arkansas newspapers about the camps.

For one thing, in relation to the issue of taking Arkansas teachers and putting them into teaching positions in the camps, all three Arkansas papers he consulted felt that such an action fostered anti-Japanese American sentiments.

The papers noted a labor shortage in the areas around the camps but the internees were still not allowed to work in the state.

The view taken by many ministers was quite different:

...many ministers in the state did not regard evacuees as the enemy, except in a theological sense.”

T.L Harris, President of the Executive Board of Arkansas Southern Baptists, presented his blatant plans for conversion of Japanese Americans: “Here is our own state we have had literally thrust upon us the greatest opportunity for winning to Christ those of pagan faith we have ever witnessed.”

Still, though, the majority of articles were negative.

Negative coverage of Japanese Americans included repeated articles on unrest and chaos at the centers, official probes into camp disturbances, confrontations between internees and locals, and stories illuminating racist sentiments.

The main dislike of the Japanese Americans was for their access to food and education.

This work also includes a list of the articles run in the local papers which is very helpful for the researcher. Main Index Japan main page Japanese-American Internment Camps index page Japan and World War II index page

This work also includes a list of the articles run in the local papers which is very helpful for the researcher.

Main Index
Japan main page
Japanese-American Internment Camps index page
Japan and World War II index page